Language selection

Search

Pacific north coast integrated management area plan

Table of Contents

2.0 Planning Area

“PNCIMA’s ocean area is unique in terms of the diversity of ecosystems it contains and the important habitat it provides for many species.”

(Robinson Consulting 2012)

PNCIMA encompasses approximately 102,000 km2 of marine area and occupies approximately two-thirds of the B.C. coast (Figure 2-1). The boundary of PNCIMA was defined based on a mix of ecological considerations and administrative boundaries. Ecologically, the PNCIMA boundary represents the Northern Shelf Bioregion of the Pacific Ocean. The boundary extends from the base of the continental shelf slope in the west to the coastal watershed in the east (adjacent terrestrial watersheds are not included). North to south, PNCIMA extends from the Canada–U.S. border of Alaska to Brooks Peninsula on northwest Vancouver Island and to Quadra Island in the south (PNCIMA 2011).

An Atlas of the Pacific North Coast Integrated Management Area, which contains 63 maps showing where human activities occur in PNCIMA and detailing important ecological, hydrological and oceanographic features and communities, was developed by the collaborative governance partners and was completed in 2011 (PNCIMA 2011).

2.1 Marine Environment

The coastline of PNCIMA is characterized by rugged coastal mountains, abundant offshore islands, rocky shores with few sand and gravel beaches, steep valleys and fjords that extend to the ocean floor, and a glacially scoured continental shelf with crosscutting troughs. PNCIMA is located in a transition zone between two areas — the northern area dominated by Alaska Coastal Current downwelling and the southern area by California Current upwelling. PNCIMA’s semi-enclosed basin, varied bottom topography, and freshwater input set it apart from other areas of the North American west coast. Strong tidal mixing in the narrow passes and channels enhances productivity around the periphery (Lucas et al. 2007).

PNCIMA’s ocean area is unique in terms of the diversity of ecosystems it contains and the important habitat it provides for many species (Robinson Consulting 2012). It provides essential spawning and rearing habitat for local salmon populations and is important as a marine migration corridor for more southerly populations (Irvine and Crawford 2011). The region also provides important habitat for ancient colonies of corals and sponge reef communities. The Pacific Region Cold-Water Coral and Sponge Conservation Strategy (DFO 2010) was designed to protect these rare and sensitive components of the marine ecosystem.

Many species of marine mammals occur within PNCIMA for at least part of their life history. For example, three distinct eco-types of killer whales occur in PNCIMA: northern and southern resident killer whales, transient killer whales and offshore killer whales. Sea otters, Steller and California sea lions, northern fur seals, northern elephant seals, harbour seals and leatherback turtles are also found in PNCIMA. In addition, PNCIMA hosts a range of native invertebrates, as well as introduced shellfish and other invertebrate species, two non-indigenous sponges and two non-indigenous species of marine fish.

The marine ecosystem supports a variety of migratory species: stopover migrants, such as marine migratory birds; destination migrants, such as whales; and environmental migrants, such as pelagic zooplankton and fish that enter PNCIMA when water temperatures are unusually warm.

Migrants provide an input of energy and food but also can export energy from the system. Detailed descriptions of the abundant marine species that inhabit the region can be found in the PNCIMA Atlas. The Identification of Ecologically and Biologically Significant Areas in the Pacific North Coast Integrated Management Area: Phase II— Final Report (Clarke and Jamieson 2006) provides additional information on the physical features of the region that produce and support some of PNCIMA’s unique ecological communities.

The Pacific Ocean moderates the climate of PNCIMA, which results in warm, wet winters and cool summers. Very different air pressure patterns in the Gulf of Alaska in summer and winter also produce wet, windy winters and drier, relatively calmer summers. Frequent winter storms with strong southerly winds bring not only high waves but also warmer waters from the south and deep downwelling and mixing of surface waters. Relatively calmer weather in summer with periods of northerly winds brings calmer seas and allows nutrients from deep waters to reach the surface. Intense rainfall along the Coast Mountains in late autumn and winter produces large volumes of freshwater runoff on the eastern side of PNCIMA. Large rivers originating in the B.C. Interior snowfields and glaciers contribute most of the freshwater runoff in other seasons, especially in late spring. Although this summer-winter change in weather is typical in PNCIMA, there have been variations in the weather over past decades, which have affected the area (Irvine and Crawford 2011).

Figure 2-1 Pacific North Coast Integrated Management Area (PNCIMA)

Figure 2-1 Pacific North Coast Integrated Management Area (PNCIMA)

Additional information

The 2007 Ecosystem Overview: Pacific North Coast Integrated Management Area (PNCIMA) (Lucas et al. 2007) provides an overview of the physical and biological ecosystems in PNCIMA, including descriptions of physical processes, trophic structure, biomass and habitat in the area.

The 2011 State of the Ocean Report for the Pacific North Coast Integrated Management Area (PNCIMA) (Irvine and Crawford 2011) provides information on the ecology of PNCIMA and insights into changes in this marine ecosystem since publication of the Ecosystem Overview in 2007.

“British Columbia’s north and central coasts are teeming with abundant and diverse marine life, offering a natural wonder in our own backyard.”

(PNCIMA website video, courtesy of the Vancouver Aquarium)

Case Study: Management of Unique Species in PNCIMA

There are more than 80 species of cold-water corals in B.C., and 250 species of sponges exist on Canada’s Pacific Coast (Gardner 2009). In 1988, four large glass sponge reefs were discovered in Hecate Strait and Queen Charlotte Sound. The reefs are the largest known of their kind in the world: individual reefs measure up to 35 km long, 15 km wide and 25 m high. The reefs have existed in the deep, iceberg-furrowed troughs of Hecate Strait and Queen Charlotte Sound for an estimated 9,000 years.

Many cold-water corals and sponges provide structural habitat for a number of fish and invertebrate species that are of economic and social importance to Canadians. For example, live glass sponge reefs provide important nursery habitat for juvenile rockfish, and high-complexity reefs are associated with high species richness and abundance (Cook 2005; Marliave et al. 2009). Protection and conservation of cold-water corals, glass sponge reefs and their associated communities is needed to preserve our natural heritage, protect biodiversity and maintain key ecosystem dynamics.

In B.C. waters, bottom fishing likely has the greatest direct impact on cold-water corals and sponges due to the removal of, or damage to, these organisms. Consequently, DFO, the Groundfish Trawl Advisory Committee and the Canadian Groundfish Research and Conservation Society have worked together to prohibit commercial and research groundfish trawl activity within the footprint of the Hecate Strait glass sponge reefs since 2002. In 2006, the original closure boundaries were extended, and the closure was expanded to include shrimp trawl fishing in order to provide greater protection for the reefs. In 2010, to enhance protection and prevent impacts by all human activities in perpetuity, the glass sponge reefs were identified as an Area of Interest for designation as a marine protected area under the Oceans Act. Today, work is continuing to establish the Area of Interest as an Oceans Act marine protected area and scientific research is being conducted to better understand these unique and vulnerable species.

2.2 Human Use

The information contained in this section may not fully reflect the views of Canada, the Province or First Nations.

"People have lived in this area for thousands of years, sustained by its abundant marine and terrestrial resources, which also shaped the inhabitants’ social, economic and cultural values."

(Robinson Consulting 2012)

Summary of Current Marine Activities in PNCIMA

First Nations marine resource use: Harvest of marine resources by First Nations

Sport fisheries: Recreational angling, collecting of shellfish, harvesting of finfish and invertebrates by residents and visitors for personal use

Commercial fisheries: Harvest of wild finfish and invertebrates for commercial purposes

Aquaculture: Culture of finfish, shellfish or plants in the aquatic environment or manufactured container

Seafood processing: Transformation of wild and cultured seafood into food products for sales to domestic and international markets

Ocean recreation/tourism: Cruise ship tourism, recreational boating, paddle sports, including kayaking, whale watching and diving by residents and visitors

Marine transportation: All vessels greater than 20m, beginning/ending voyage in PNCIMA or in transit; small vessel movement undocumented

Marine energy and mining: Existing and potential energy and mineral resources

Tenure on aquatic lands: Granting of tenure on land below the high water line; tenure is often ancillary to primary activity, such as aquaculture, log storage and moorage

Ocean disposal: Deliberate disposal of approved substances at approved marine sites

National defence and public safety: Activities countering threats to security and sovereignty, and resources used to address public safety

Research, monitoring and enforcement: Efforts to learn more about marine functions for better management, supported by monitoring and enforcement; compliance with policy and regulations

The marine ecosystems within PNCIMA provide important habitat for many species and marine resources that contribute to coastal economies and communities. People have lived in this area for thousands of years, sustained by its abundant marine and terrestrial resources, which also continue to shape the inhabitants’ social, economic and cultural values (Robinson Consulting 2012).

British Columbia is a major gateway for Asian trade to and from North America. All three major PNCIMA ports – Stewart, Kitimat and Prince Rupert – are poised for expansion to facilitate increased trade with Asian markets (GSGislason & Associates Ltd. 2007).

B.C. businesses that depend on the ocean environment include resource extraction, processing and distribution (e.g., seafood processing); goods construction and manufacturing (e.g., ship building); and services (e.g., ocean transportation and ocean-based recreation). In addition, public (government) and non-government sector activities are tied to the promotion and regulation of ocean-based business activities, ocean-related education and research, and ocean environmental stewardship.

Overall, the ocean sector makes an important contribution to the B.C. economy. Direct revenues from B.C. ocean sectors exceeded $11 billion Footnote 2 in 2005, and the total ocean sector impacts comprised 7-8% of the B.C. economy. Precise economic numbers are not available for the PNCIMA region.

There is substantial potential for growth within the B.C. ocean economy, both from existing sectors and from potential new energy sectors (GSGislason & Associates Ltd. 2007).

First Nations cultures and communities within PNCIMA are inextricably tied to the marine environment. For thousands of years, First Nations have used marine resources for a wide variety of purposes. Traditional activities include the management, harvesting (including seasonal and rotational harvest), preparation, consumption and exchange of marine resources, which occur year-round. First Nations consider that marine resources play a unique role in shaping and characterizing the identity of the people who rely on them (Garibaldi and Turner 2004).

A variety of gears and methods, including traditional systems of resource use and modern gear, is used to harvest species for families, communities and commercial purposes. Knowledge is passed down from generation to generation, including where, how and when to access food resources, as well as how to process and preserve food throughout the year. Traditional knowledge of natural features, animal behaviour and ocean conditions is often used, and it is an important source of information for documenting changes in marine environments over time (PNCIMA 2011; Robinson Consulting 2012). First Nations advise that their marine governance and resource management systems include such things as harvest technologies, spatial and social restrictions, seasonal avoidance, selective harvesting, stock management and transplantation, and habitat management and enhancement, and that these systems controlled harvest levels and allowed for the sustainable use of a broad variety of marine resources for millennia (McDonald 1991, 2003; Jones and Williams-Davidson 2000; Turner 2003; Menzies and Butler 2007, 2008; Menzies 2010; Mitchell and Donald 2001).

First Nations integrated the industrial fishery into their economies and contributed significantly to the development of the B.C. fishery. They continue to value and prioritize participation in this industry. First Nations have actively participated in growing marine industries, such as commercial fishing, hunting and boat building. Their access to marine resources requires considerable travel within and between territories, using travel routes that have been developed for efficiency and safety. First Nations view marine transportation routes – including those for canoe, fish boats and other vessels – as important ways to travel between their coastal communities.

They continue to rely on trading relationships among coastal First Nations and with Interior communities to provide access to a broader range of marine and terrestrial species (Turner 2003; Menzies 2010). First Nations seek to ensure an ongoing sustainable relationship with marine resources, strengthened by such things as cooperative food gathering and a responsibility to maintain and protect important and sensitive marine ecosystems. They consider their historic and ongoing relationships with the ocean and marine resources to be critical foundations of their food, social, cultural and economic laws, custom, practices and traditions, including governance and management.

Non-First Nations settlement in PNCIMA is less than 200 years old. The growth and development of many of the earliest settlements was based on a number of factors, including alliances with First Nations and access to seafood. Fishing boats quickly became an essential element in participating in fish harvesting and other resource activities such as forestry and beachcombing. The ability to move or switch to other resource activities through the year allowed coastal villages to remain relatively stable.

Hunting, fishing, and plant gathering also supported coastal communities. Local boat building was widespread in both First Nations and non-First Nations communities and offset the need for capital and the importation of manufactured goods. Reliance on this local industry forged relationships and networks among family groups and villages, and allowed the communication and transfer of local and technical knowledge. Networks and the development of formal and informal organizations contributed to the distribution of credit, commodities, labour, recreation and cultural activities.

Early market economies in British Columbia were based on ocean-related industries, such as canoe and ship building, fishing and coastal logging. Over the years, the growth of exportoriented sectors, from mining and forest products to agricultural goods and petroleum production, depended on ocean transportation for access to markets. Now, emerging industries like ocean tourism and marine technology development are helping drive the economy (GSGislason & Associates Ltd. 2007).

Today, the lands adjacent to PNCIMA support 14 incorporated, 18 unincorporated and 32 First Nations communities (Table 2-1). The coastline of PNCIMA is shared among five regional districts: Kitimat-Stikine, Skeena-Queen Charlotte, Central Coast, Mount Waddington, and Strathcona. The communities and regional districts in PNCIMA are mapped in Appendix 4. These communities support both terrestrial and marine activities, although the scope of the PNCIMA plan is limited to the marine environment and its associated use. Footnote 3

The population estimate for the incorporated and unincorporated communities in Table 2-1 for 2011 was 118,416 (BC Stats 2011). This estimate does not include the listed First Nations communities. From 1975 to 2009, the population declined in all regional districts in PNCIMA except Strathcona. As a result of growth in the Strathcona Regional District, the total PNCIMA population grew about 9% over that period, whereas the total provincial population increased by almost 75%. The issue of declining populations and loss of a local tax base associated with the decline in the region‘s resource sectors has created new challenges for communities within PNCIMA. A provincial index of socio-economic well-being suggests that communities in PNCIMA face a relatively higher level of socio-economic hardship than communities elsewhere in B.C. (Robinson Consulting 2012).

The Socio-Economic and Cultural Overview and Assessment Report for the Pacific North Coast Integrated Management Area (Robinson Consulting 2012) provides a summary and synthesis of information on socio-economic and cultural values and issues, including profiles of the status, trends and outlook of coastal communities bordering the planning area, the role of the marine environment in shaping the region‘s cultural values, and the ocean’s contribution to selected economic activities.

Table 2-1 Communities in the Coastal Watersheds in PNCIMA
Incorporated Communities Unincorporated Communities First Nations Communities
Kitimat-Stikine Regional District
  • District of Kitimat
  • City of Terrace
  • District of Stewart
  • Thornhill
  • Lakelse Lake to Rosswood Area
  • Nass Valley
  • New Aiyansh (Nisga’a)
  • Gitiwinksihlkw (Nisga’a)
  • Laxgalts’ap (Nisga’a)
  • Gingolx (Nisga’a)
  • Kitimaat Village (Haisla)
  • Kitsumkaylum (Kitsumkalum)
  • Kulspai (Kitselas)
  • Gitaus (Kitselas)
  • Endudoon (Kitselas)
  • Klemtu (Kitasoo/Xai’xais)
Skeena-Queen Charlotte Regional District
  • Village of Masset
  • Village of Port Clements
  • Village of Queen Charlotte
  • Village of Port Edward
  • City of Prince Rupert
  • Tlell
  • Sandspit
  • Remaining Unincorporated Areas 2
  • Dodge Cove
  • Oona River
  • Massett (Haida)
  • Skidegate (Haida)
  • Hartley Bay (Gitga’at)
  • Lax Kw’alaams (Lax Kw’alaams)
  • Metlakatla (Metlakatla)
  • Kitkatla (Gitxaala)
Central Coast Regional District
  • Bella Coola Townsite
  • Hagensborg, Firvale, Stuie
  • Ocean Falls
  • Shearwater
  • Remaining Unincorporated Areas
  • Qu’umk’uts’ (Nuxalk)
  • Walisla/Bella Bella (Heiltsuk)
  • Rivers Inlet (Wuikinuxv)
Mount Waddington Regional District
  • Village of Alert Bay
  • Village of Port Alice
  • District Municipality of Port Hardy
  • Town of Port McNeil
  • Coal Harbour
  • Hyde Creek
  • Sointula
  • Tsatsisnukwomi/New Vancouver (Da’naxda’xw Awaetlala)
  • Gway’yi/Kingcome Village (Dzawada’enuxw)
  • Tsukquate (Gwa’sala- ‘Nakwaxda’xw)
  • Fort Rupert (Kwakiutl)
  • Gwa-yas-dums (Kwik’wastutinuxw)
  • Alert Bay (Namgis)
  • Quatsino Reserve (Quatsino)
  • Bull Harbour (Tlatlasikwala)
Strathcona Regional District
  • Village of Sayward
  • Campbell River
  • Heriot Bay
  • Quathiaski Cove
  • Read Island
  • Manson’s Landing
  • Remaining Unincorporated Areas
  • Squirrel Cove (Klahoose)
  • Campbell River Reserve (Wei Wai Kum)
  • Cape Mudge (We Wai Kai)
  • Quinsam (We Wai Kai)
  • Homalco (Xwemalhkwu)

2.3 Future of the Planning Area

The future of PNCIMA’s marine environment is subject to much uncertainty. Satellite observations since 1993 indicate global sea levels are rising at a rate of 30 cm per century. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicted sea levels will rise by 20–60 cm over the 21st century, but recent observations of ice melt in Greenland and Antarctica suggest these projections might be too low. Therefore, greater rates of sea level rise in British Columbia can be expected in the future. With long-term global warming, even higher rates of sea level rise are expected after 2100. Recent studies of global predictions of sea level rise and local effects in British Columbia have suggested that sea level rise at Prince Rupert in the 21st century might be 20–30 cm (Irvine and Crawford 2012).

Climate change is also likely to cause changes in both biological productivity and runoff patterns in PNCIMA. The productivity of the marine ecosystem as a whole is influenced by the extent of upwelling and favourable winds. If these winds change as a result of natural climate changes, as has happened in the past, they will have an impact on the productivity of the entire ecosystem. The spatial pattern of plankton productivity will be affected by changes in the hydrological regime. If the timing or amount of freshwater runoff changes, the degree of nutrient entrainment into the upper layers of the water column by estuarine processes and the locations at which these processes occur could be affected.

Another important global trend is the increasing acidification of the oceans due to increases in carbon dioxide concentration in ocean waters. This presents a threat to organisms that produce calcite and aragonite shells or structures, such as pteropods, corals and bivalves. The full impacts of increasing acidity are not known. Most of this additional carbon dioxide is derived from human activities (Lucas et al. 2007).

BC Stats (2011) forecasts PNCIMA’s population will grow by 8,800 residents between 2009 and 2036 – an increase of just over 7% compared to a 36% forecasted increase in the provincial population. The forecasted growth is expected to be concentrated in the Strathcona Regional District area of PNCIMA.

First Nations rely on fisheries and marine resources for food, social, ceremonial and commercial purposes. There have been declines in various species, including abalone, eulachon, inshore rockfish and some salmon stocks, which are species that First Nations have relied on and will continue to do so.

Many communities in PNCIMA have infrastructure deficits that will require considerable investment in the future. Many communities have also experienced a decline in commercial fishing, and they are further challenged in positioning their communities in new economies (Robinson Consulting 2012). More specific information about the future of key marine activities within the region is provided in Appendix 3.

Date modified: